Contemporary Jurisprudence Education

International

comparative-law

contract-law

contemporary-jurisprudence-and-international-instruments

In this course the opinions and proofs related to the issue of “the scope of the application of ‘compulsion’ in case of confirmation of harm to someone who is not compelled are taught.&nbsp;Professor (Ustad): Ayatollah Mahdi Shab Zendeh Dar (may his life be prolonged)Time: Saturday - Tuesday/ 10.15 – 11 amFirst Session: Tuesday, 22nd September 2020The classes will be held online.&nbsp;The link to participate in the lesson is as follows:<a href="https://rubika.ir/Feghahat_ir">https://rubika.ir/Feghahat_ir</a>

The advanced contemporary jurisprudence course for “terms of sale compared to international and domestic legal rules” is currently being held. 

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Terms of Sale compared to International and Domestic Legal Rules 

cryptocurrency

regulation

JOHANNESBURG, June 2, 2026 — The South Gauteng High Court has issued a landmark ruling confirming that Bitcoin qualifies as both "capital" and "money" under South Africa's exchange control framework, a decision expected to have far-reaching implications for cryptocurrency users and cross-border digital asset transactions.&nbsp;In a judgment delivered Monday, Judge Stuart Wilson dismissed an application brought by cryptocurrency trader Square Mangundhla and Fungai Dangaiso seeking to overturn a forfeiture order issued by the South African Reserve Bank (SARB). The order related to Bitcoin transfers valued at approximately R182 million that were moved to cryptocurrency exchanges based outside South Africa. The court concluded that the transfers constituted an unlawful export of capital because they were conducted without the approval required under South Africa's Exchange Control Regulations."The central question in this case is whether cryptocurrency, in this instance Bitcoin, constitutes either money or capital for the purposes of the Exchange Control Regulations," Judge Wilson wrote in the judgment. "I conclude that it is both."<h3>Bitcoin Transfers Deemed Capital Exports</h3>According to court documents, Mangundhla engaged in lawful cryptocurrency trading activities between 2015 and 2017. However, from January 2018 to March 2020, he allegedly used his own account and an account held by Dangaiso to transfer nearly 1,680 Bitcoin to wallets controlled through cryptocurrency exchanges registered abroad.At the time of the transfers, the Bitcoin was valued at approximately R182 million.The SARB argued that moving the assets to foreign exchanges effectively transferred capital outside South Africa's jurisdiction, triggering exchange control restrictions. Following an investigation, authorities ordered the forfeiture of nearly R6 million in cryptocurrency assets and related funds held in the applicants' bank and digital asset accounts.The applicants challenged the order, arguing that Bitcoin's decentralized and digital nature placed it outside the scope of regulations designed for conventional financial assets.The court rejected that argument.Judge Wilson held that Bitcoin functions as a financial asset capable of storing value, generating investment returns, and facilitating exchanges of goods and services. As such, it falls squarely within the ordinary meaning of capital."It is a financial asset that is capable of holding value and being used as a medium of exchange," the judge said.<h3>Court Warns Against Regulatory Loopholes</h3>A key aspect of the ruling was the court's concern that excluding cryptocurrencies from exchange control laws would undermine South Africa's capital management framework.The judgment noted that individuals could otherwise bypass regulatory oversight simply by converting local currency into cryptocurrency before transferring it abroad."Were it otherwise, those controls would be virtually worthless," Judge Wilson wrote, adding that anyone seeking to move money offshore could avoid Treasury supervision through cryptocurrency transactions.The court further ruled that cryptocurrency had effectively been exported once it was transferred to wallets maintained by foreign exchanges and placed beyond the reach of South African regulators."Once the Bitcoin was placed beyond the Reserve Bank's jurisdiction, it was exported," the judgment stated.<h3>Departure From Earlier High Court Decision</h3>The ruling marks a notable departure from a separate 2025 High Court judgment that found cryptocurrency was neither money nor capital for exchange control purposes.Judge Wilson explicitly disagreed with that interpretation, arguing that the earlier decision focused too heavily on the technological characteristics of digital assets while overlooking their practical economic functions.The judgment emphasized that Bitcoin can be purchased with South African rand, held as an investment, exchanged for profit, and used as payment in certain commercial transactions. These characteristics, the court found, support treating cryptocurrency as both a store of value and a medium of exchange under existing legal principles.<h3>Regulatory Implications for South Africa's Crypto Sector</h3>Legal experts say the decision may establish an important precedent for future enforcement actions involving cryptocurrency and offshore transfers.The ruling arrives as South Africa's regulatory framework for cross-border capital movements is undergoing significant reform.Last month, National Treasury released draft Capital Flow Management Regulations for public comment, part of a broader effort to modernize exchange control policies and align them with evolving financial technologies.During the 2026 Budget Speech, Finance Minister Enoch Godongwana announced planned amendments to the Exchange Control Regulations aimed at shifting toward a more flexible and risk-based system. The proposed reforms would reduce transaction pre-approval requirements while strengthening reporting obligations, surveillance of high-risk cross-border transactions, and efforts to combat illicit financial flows.Industry participants have generally welcomed the modernization effort, viewing it as an opportunity to provide greater regulatory certainty for digital asset businesses and investors.For now, however, the High Court's decision reinforces the principle that cryptocurrency transactions remain subject to South Africa's existing exchange control regime, regardless of the technology used to facilitate them.The applicants' review application was dismissed, and the SARB forfeiture order remains in force.&nbsp;https://africannewsagency.com/high-court-rules-bitcoin-is-capital-under-sa-exchange-control-laws-orders-r6m-forfeiture/

Judgment upholds SARB forfeiture order and signals stricter regulatory oversight of cross-border cryptocurrency transfers

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SA Declares Bitcoin ‘Capital’ Under Exchange Control Laws 

South African High Court Declares Bitcoin ‘Capital’ Under Exchange Control Laws in Landmark Ruling

framework

ethics-of-artificial-intelligence

OXFORD, June 3, 2026 — The rapid integration of artificial intelligence into corporate decision-making is exposing significant gaps in traditional legal standards governing directors' responsibilities, according to new research published by legal scholar Giovanni Vetrugno.As companies increasingly incorporate AI into strategic and operational processes, legal frameworks designed for human-led decision-making are struggling to keep pace. A recent KPMG study found that 66% of users regularly rely on AI tools, yet only about half trust AI-generated outputs enough to use them in operational decisions. Meanwhile, PwC research indicates that nearly half of technology leaders now consider AI fully integrated into their corporate strategies.&nbsp;The disconnect between adoption and trust, experts say, has important implications for corporate governance."Adoption has outpaced trust," Vetrugno argues. "More importantly, it has outpaced the conceptual tools that govern director liability."The challenge is particularly evident in jurisdictions such as Italy, where director duties are governed by legal standards developed decades before the emergence of advanced algorithms. Article 2392 of the Italian Civil Code, drafted in 1942, requires directors to exercise diligence appropriate to their role. However, the law assumes that business decisions can be understood, evaluated, and reconstructed by human decision-makers.Modern AI systems challenge that assumption.&nbsp;Machine-learning models often operate as "black boxes," producing outcomes that may be difficult to explain even for their developers. This creates uncertainty about what constitutes sufficient oversight when directors authorize or rely on AI-driven decisions.The issue becomes more complex under the business judgment rule, a legal doctrine that generally protects directors from liability when decisions are made in good faith and on an informed basis. Critics argue that directors may struggle to meet the "informed" standard when key decisions are influenced by algorithms whose internal processes are not fully transparent.&nbsp;In response, Vetrugno and co-author Sottoriva have proposed a new governance framework known as the TRACE Model, designed to help boards manage AI-related risks without requiring directors to become technical experts.&nbsp;The framework is built around five principles:<ul><li>Transparency – ensuring boards have clear documentation explaining what AI systems do, their limitations, and how they fit into company operations.</li><li>Risk Assessment – continuously evaluating potential biases, system failures, and performance degradation over time.</li><li>Audit Trail – maintaining records that allow companies to reconstruct how AI-assisted decisions were reached.</li><li>Competence – ensuring boards collectively possess the expertise needed to oversee AI through training, advisory committees, or specialist directors.</li><li>Ethics – integrating AI governance into broader environmental, social, and governance (ESG) responsibilities.</li></ul>According to the authors, the focus should shift from assessing whether directors personally understand complex algorithms to evaluating whether appropriate governance structures are in place.&nbsp;Although developed with Italian law in mind, the framework addresses concerns emerging across multiple jurisdictions. In the United States, Delaware's Caremark doctrine requires boards to establish oversight systems capable of identifying compliance failures. Similar duties exist under the UK's Companies Act 2006, while German legal scholars have begun discussing concepts of "digital diligence" for corporate directors.The researchers argue that AI governance should be viewed as an extension of existing oversight obligations rather than as a completely new category of legal responsibility.&nbsp;As AI adoption continues to accelerate, courts around the world may soon be called upon to determine how traditional director duties apply when algorithms play a central role in corporate decision-making."The standard of director diligence is not broken," Vetrugno concludes. "It does, however, need to be read in light of the technologies it is now asked to govern."&nbsp;Legal experts say the next major AI-related corporate failure could provide the first significant test of those evolving standards.&nbsp;https://blogs.law.ox.ac.uk/oblb/blog-post/2026/06/directors-and-ai-why-diligence-needs-new-framework

Oxford legal scholar proposes new governance framework as boards increasingly rely on artificial intelligence

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AI Adoption Outpaces Trust, Raising New Questions About Director Liability

Iran

ai-technology

TEHRAN, June 2026 — Iran has launched a new national initiative to develop an indigenous large language model (LLM) and establish a framework for measuring digital maturity across public and private sector organizations, as the country seeks to expand its artificial intelligence capabilities and accelerate digital transformation efforts.&nbsp;The initiative was announced following the signing of two strategic cooperation agreements by the country's Information Technology Organization with the Iran Information Technology Organization, the Research Institute for Information and Communication Technology, and the Industrial Management Organization. The agreements establish a collaborative framework for the development of a domestic AI language model built on national infrastructure and the creation of a system to assess and rank the digital readiness of industries and digital platforms.&nbsp;Officials said the project aims to strengthen Iran's technological self-sufficiency by developing advanced Persian-language artificial intelligence capabilities within the country's own digital ecosystem. The large language model is expected to support local language processing, knowledge management, and AI-powered services while reducing dependence on foreign AI platforms.&nbsp;The initiative forms part of broader national efforts to build domestic AI infrastructure and improve the availability of advanced language technologies for Persian-speaking users. Iranian research institutions and technology organizations have increasingly prioritized the development of local AI models in recent years as demand for generative AI applications grows globally.&nbsp;Alongside the AI project, authorities will introduce a comprehensive digital maturity assessment framework designed to evaluate the technological readiness of both government agencies and private-sector organizations. The framework is expected to provide standardized benchmarks for measuring digital capabilities, identifying gaps in technology adoption, and guiding future investment in digital transformation initiatives.The assessment system will examine organizational preparedness for emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence, data analytics, cloud infrastructure, and digital service delivery. Officials say the resulting rankings could help policymakers prioritize support programs and encourage greater adoption of digital technologies across key sectors of the economy.&nbsp;The agreements build on a series of recent efforts by Iranian institutions to expand domestic AI research and development. Previous initiatives have included collaborations between universities, research institutes, and private technology firms to create Persian-language large language models and other AI systems tailored to local needs.&nbsp;Technology experts note that the development of national language models has become a strategic priority for many countries seeking greater control over AI infrastructure, language resources, and data governance. For nations with less globally represented languages, locally developed AI models can help improve performance in natural language processing tasks while supporting cultural and linguistic preservation.&nbsp;The new partnerships are expected to bring together government agencies, research institutions, and industry stakeholders in an effort to establish a stronger foundation for AI innovation and digital modernization.&nbsp;While officials have not yet disclosed a timeline for the completion of the language model or the rollout of the digital maturity framework, the agreements signal a growing emphasis on artificial intelligence as a pillar of Iran's digital development strategy.&nbsp;&nbsp; https://www.irna.ir/news/86169761/آغاز-همکاری-برای-توسعه-مدل-زبانی-بزرگ-بومی-و-سنجش-بلوغ-دیجیتال

Government agencies sign strategic agreements to strengthen domestic AI capabilities and accelerate digital transformation across industries

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Iran Launches National AI Initiative to Develop Indigenous Large Language Model and Digital Maturity Assessment Framework

digital-transformation

technology

TEHRAN, June 2026 — Iranian government institutions and industry stakeholders have signed a strategic cooperation agreement aimed at accelerating the development of advanced technologies and expanding support for the country's growing knowledge-based business sector. The memorandum of understanding (MoU) seeks to strengthen collaboration between government agencies, research institutions, and private-sector innovators to address technological challenges, increase industrial self-sufficiency, and promote the commercialization of domestically developed technologies.&nbsp;Officials said the agreement focuses on leveraging the capabilities of knowledge-based companies to develop strategic technologies, reduce dependence on imported solutions, and improve the competitiveness of key industrial sectors. The initiative aligns with broader national efforts to expand the knowledge economy and increase the contribution of high-technology industries to economic growth.&nbsp;Under the partnership, participating organizations will cooperate on technology development projects, support research and development activities, and facilitate the deployment of innovative solutions in industrial operations. The agreement is expected to prioritize advanced technology fields, including digital transformation, industrial innovation, automation, and emerging technology applications that can help address strategic needs across the economy. Officials emphasized the importance of connecting research capabilities with market demand to accelerate commercialization and reduce technology gaps in critical sectors.&nbsp;Knowledge-based companies are expected to play a central role in the initiative. Authorities said the agreement will create new opportunities for technology firms to participate in large-scale industrial projects, provide specialized solutions, and contribute to national innovation programs.Support mechanisms may include facilitating access to financing, encouraging partnerships between industry and technology providers, and helping innovative firms scale their products and services for broader market adoption. Similar government initiatives in recent years have focused on integrating knowledge-based companies into strategic sectors such as energy, manufacturing, petrochemicals, and digital technologies.&nbsp;Iran has increasingly promoted knowledge-based enterprises as a key component of its economic development strategy. Policymakers view technology-driven businesses as an important source of innovation, productivity gains, and employment opportunities, particularly in sectors where domestic technological capabilities can reduce reliance on foreign suppliers. Industry experts note that partnerships between government institutions and technology companies have become an increasingly common mechanism for accelerating innovation and addressing industrial challenges through locally developed solutions.&nbsp;Officials described the agreement as part of a broader effort to build a more resilient and technology-driven economy. By fostering collaboration between industry, government, and innovative enterprises, authorities hope to accelerate the development of advanced technologies while creating new pathways for commercialization and industrial deployment.&nbsp;The agreement underscores Iran's continued emphasis on expanding its innovation ecosystem and strengthening the role of knowledge-based companies in driving future economic growth.&nbsp;<a href=" https://www.irib-news.ir/fa/news/5812757/امضای-تفاهم‌نامه-همکاری-برای-توسعه-فناوری‌های-پیشرفته-و-حمایت-از-شرکت‌های-دانش‌بنیان">&nbsp;https://www.irib-news.ir/fa/news/5812757/امضای-تفاهم‌نامه-همکاری-برای-توسعه-فناوری‌های-پیشرفته-و-حمایت-از-شرکت‌های-دانش‌بنیان</a>

New agreement aims to strengthen innovation, industrial competitiveness and commercialization of domestic technologies

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Iran Signs Strategic Partnership to Accelerate Advanced Technologies and Support Knowledge-Based Companies

islamic-revolution-judiciary

NEW ENGLAND, May 28, 2026 — Artificial intelligence is rapidly transforming access to the American legal system, enabling thousands of individuals to pursue lawsuits without hiring attorneys and triggering a significant rise in self-represented litigation across federal courts.According to a new study currently under review for publication, advanced AI tools such as ChatGPT and Claude are increasingly being used by litigants to research legal issues, draft court filings, prepare motions, and navigate complex legal procedures that once required professional legal assistance.Researchers analyzed millions of federal court docket entries spanning several years and found a substantial increase in civil lawsuits filed by individuals acting pro se, or without legal representation. Using linguistic analysis, statistical modeling, and AI-detection software, the study concluded that a growing share of federal court filings bear characteristics consistent with AI-generated content.&nbsp;The findings suggest that nearly one in five federal civil complaints filed by early 2026 contained language classified as AI-generated, a dramatic increase from virtually zero before the public release of advanced large language models in late 2022."The AI detection rate rises consistently from near zero at the end of 2022 to 18 percent by early 2026," the researchers reported, linking the trend to the rapid adoption and improving capabilities of generative AI systems.<h3>Lowering the Cost of Legal Representation</h3>The development could mark one of the most significant changes to access to justice in decades.Although Americans have long possessed the legal right to represent themselves in court, the practical barriers to doing so have often been overwhelming. Civil litigation typically requires extensive legal research, procedural knowledge, document preparation, and compliance with complex court rules. Hiring an attorney can cost thousands of dollars, placing legal action beyond the reach of many individuals.AI tools are changing that equation.&nbsp;Users can now ask chatbots to explain legal procedures, summarize case law, organize evidence, draft legal arguments, and generate court documents at little or no cost. Tasks that previously required professional legal assistance can increasingly be completed from a personal computer or smartphone.The study found that AI-assisted filings have appeared across a broad range of legal disputes, including employment claims, real estate conflicts, insurance cases, immigration proceedings, disability claims, and defamation lawsuits.&nbsp;One of the most notable increases occurred in immigration-related litigation. Researchers reported a dramatic rise in habeas corpus petitions and detention-related lawsuits, suggesting that migrants and detainees may be using AI tools to challenge government actions without legal representation.Legal scholars say the trend could represent a historic expansion of practical access to constitutional protections and civil justice.<h3>Concerns Over Accuracy and Court Backlogs</h3>The rise of AI-assisted litigation has generated both enthusiasm and concern within the legal profession.Supporters argue that generative AI offers an unprecedented opportunity to close the long-standing "justice gap" that leaves many Americans unable to pursue legitimate legal claims because of cost barriers.&nbsp;Legal aid organizations have been among the most enthusiastic adopters of AI technology. Several studies indicate that nonprofit legal service providers are integrating AI tools at a faster rate than many private law firms, viewing them as a way to serve larger numbers of clients with limited resources.&nbsp;However, judges and attorneys have raised concerns about the quality of AI-generated legal work.Courts across the United States have warned litigants that they remain personally responsible for any inaccuracies contained in AI-assisted filings. Several attorneys have already faced sanctions for submitting briefs that cited fictional cases and fabricated legal precedents generated by AI systems.Critics also warn that reducing the cost of litigation may increase the volume of weak, poorly researched, or frivolous lawsuits.Historically, lawyers served as gatekeepers who filtered out meritless claims, ensured compliance with procedural rules, and translated personal grievances into legally viable arguments. As AI reduces the need for professional legal assistance, some experts fear courts could face growing numbers of filings that strain already overburdened judicial systems.&nbsp;Federal courts, unlike private businesses, cannot quickly expand capacity in response to rising demand. New judges must be appointed through political processes, and court procedures are governed by laws and rules designed to prioritize fairness and consistency rather than rapid adaptation.<h3>A Broader Transformation of Professional Services</h3>The debate reflects a broader trend unfolding across numerous professions.AI is increasingly automating forms of cognitive work once performed exclusively by highly trained professionals in fields such as law, journalism, accounting, healthcare, finance, education, and software development.&nbsp;Early discussions about AI's impact on the legal profession focused largely on whether chatbots could pass bar exams or replace junior attorneys. The new research points to a potentially more profound consequence: empowering ordinary citizens to navigate complex legal systems independently.For many legal observers, the significance extends beyond technology itself.&nbsp;The constitutional right to self-representation has existed since the founding of the United States, but practical obstacles often limited its use. By lowering the cost and complexity of legal work, AI may be turning that formal right into a realistic option for millions of Americans.Whether courts can adapt to the resulting surge in litigation remains an open question. But as AI tools become increasingly sophisticated and widely available, their influence on the administration of justice appears likely to grow.&nbsp;Legal experts say the coming years may determine whether AI becomes a disruptive force that overwhelms the court system—or a transformative technology that broadens access to justice on an unprecedented scale.&nbsp;https://thedailyeconomy.org/article/ai-enters-the-courtroom-how-chatbots-are-reshaping-litigation/

New research suggests artificial intelligence is driving a sharp increase in self-represented lawsuits, challenging traditional assumptions about legal services